Modern processors have the shape of a small rectangle, which is presented in the form of a silicon wafer. The plate itself is protected by a special housing made of plastic or ceramic. All the main circuits are protected, thanks to them the full operation of the CPU is carried out. If everything is extremely simple in appearance, then what about the circuit itself and how the processor is designed? Let's look at this in more detail.

The CPU consists of a small number of different elements. Each of them performs its own action, data and control are transferred. Ordinary users are accustomed to distinguishing processors by their clock speed, amount of cache memory, and cores. But this is not all that ensures reliable and fast operation. It is worth paying special attention to each component.

Architecture

The internal design of CPUs often differs from each other; each family has its own set of properties and functions - this is called its architecture. An example of the processor design can be seen in the image below.

But many are accustomed to meaning a slightly different meaning by processor architecture. If we consider it from a programming point of view, then it is defined by its ability to execute a certain set of codes. If you buy a modern CPU, then most likely it is x86 architecture.

Cores

The main part of the CPU is called the core, it contains all the necessary blocks, and also carries out logical and arithmetic tasks. If you look at the figure below, you can see what each kernel functional block looks like:

1. Instruction fetch module. Here, instructions are recognized by the address, which is indicated in the program counter. The number of simultaneous reading of commands directly depends on the number of installed decryption units, which helps to load each cycle of work with the largest number of instructions.
2. Transition predictor is responsible for the optimal operation of the instruction fetch unit. It determines the sequence of instructions to be executed, loading the kernel pipeline.
3. Decoding module. This part of the kernel is responsible for defining certain processes to perform tasks. The decoding task itself is very difficult due to the variable instruction size. In the newest processors there are several such blocks in one core.
4. Data sampling modules. They take information from RAM or cache memory. They carry out exactly the sampling of data that is necessary at this moment to execute the instruction.
5. Control block. The name itself speaks volumes about the importance of this component. In the core, it is the most important element, since it distributes energy between all blocks, helping to perform every action on time.
6. Module for saving results. Designed for recording after completion of instruction processing in RAM. The storage address is specified in the running task.
7. Element of working with interruptions. The CPU is capable of multitasking thanks to the interrupt function, which allows it to stop the progress of one program by switching to another instruction.
8. Registers. Temporary results of instructions are stored here; this component can be called a small fast RAM. Often its size does not exceed several hundred bytes.
9. Command counter. It stores the address of the instruction that will be used at the next processor cycle.

System bus

The CPU system bus connects the devices included in the PC. Only he is directly connected to it; the remaining elements are connected through various controllers. The bus itself contains many signal lines through which information is transmitted. Each line has its own protocol, which provides communication via controllers with other connected computer components. The bus has its own frequency; accordingly, the higher it is, the faster the exchange of information occurs between the connecting elements of the system.

Cache memory

The performance of a CPU depends on its ability to fetch instructions and data from memory as quickly as possible. Due to the cache memory, the execution time of operations is reduced due to the fact that it acts as a temporary buffer, ensuring instant transfer of data from the CPU to RAM or vice versa.

The main characteristic of cache memory is its difference in levels. If it is high, it means the memory is slower and more voluminous. The fastest and smallest memory is the first level. The principle of operation of this element is very simple - the CPU reads data from RAM and enters it into a cache of any level, while deleting the information that was accessed a long time ago. If the processor needs this information again, it will receive it faster thanks to the temporary buffer.

Socket (connector)

Due to the fact that the processor has its own connector (female or slot), you can easily replace it if it breaks or upgrade your computer. Without a socket, the CPU would simply be soldered into the motherboard, making subsequent repairs or replacement more difficult. It is worth paying attention - each slot is intended exclusively for installing certain processors.

Often, users inadvertently buy an incompatible processor and motherboard, which causes additional problems.

The central processing unit is the brain and heart of the computer

The word processor itself comes from the English verb to process, which when translated into Russian will sound like process. In a general sense, this term refers to a device or set of programs that are used to perform computational operations or process a data array or process.

In a personal computer, the processor serves as the “brain”, being the main chip that is required for the smooth and correct operation of the PC. All internal and peripheral devices are controlled by the CPU.

FOR YOUR INFORMATION:

very often the processor is denoted by the English abbreviation CPU. This stands for Central Processing Unit, or central processing unit.

Externally, the processor is a small square board, the upper part of which is covered with a metal cover that serves to protect the chips, and the lower surface is strewn with a large number of contacts. It is this side that the processor is installed in a special connector or socket located on the motherboard. The CPU, or central processing unit, is the most important part of a modern computer. Without the command issued by the CPU, not a single operation, even the simplest one, can be performed, for example, adding two numbers or writing one byte of information.

The CPU is installed in a special slot on the motherboard

How the processor works

The principle of operation of the processor is the sequential processing of various operations. They happen very quickly, the main ones are:

1. When starting any process that involves executing program code, the CPU control unit retrieves all the necessary data and a set of operands required for execution. This is then sent to buffer or cache memory.
2. At the exit from the cache, the entire flow of information is divided into two categories - instructions and values. They are redirected to appropriate memory locations called registers. The first are placed in command registers, the second category in data registers.
3. The information located in the memory registers is processed by an arithmetic-logical unit. It is one of the parts of the CPU that is required to carry out arithmetic and logical operations.
4. The calculation results are divided into two streams - completed and unfinished, which, in turn, are sent back to the cache memory.
5. Upon completion of the calculation cycle, the final result is written to RAM. This is required to free up space in the buffer, which is necessary for new computational operations. When the cache becomes full, all inactive processes are moved to RAM or to a lower level.

FOR YOUR INFORMATION:

The buffer memory is virtually divided into two parts - the lower and upper levels. Active processes are on the top "floor", and unimportant operations are moved to the bottom level. If necessary, the lower layers of information are used by the system; the rest of the time the data is not used. This approach allows the processor to use all resources for the current operation.

Simplified diagram of the central processor operation

What does the processor consist of?

To understand how a CPU works, you need to understand what parts it consists of. The main components of the processor are:

1. Top cover, which is a metal plate that performs the functions of protecting the internal contents and dissipating heat.
2. Crystal. This is the most important part of the CPU. The crystal is made of silicon and contains a large number of tiny microcircuits.
3. Textolite substrate, which serves as a contact pad. All parts of the CPU are attached to it and contacts are located through which interaction with the rest of the system occurs.

When attaching the top cover, a sealant adhesive is used that can withstand high temperatures, and thermal paste is used to eliminate the gap inside the assembled processor. After solidification, it forms a kind of “bridge”, which is required to ensure the outflow of heat from the crystal.

Main parts of the CPU - cover, die and pad

What is a processor core

If the central processing unit itself can be called the “brain” of the computer, then the core is considered the main part of the CPU itself. The core is a set of chips located on a silicon pad, the size of which does not exceed a square centimeter. The set of microscopic logical elements through which the operating principle is implemented is called architecture.

A few technical details: in modern processors, the core is attached to the chip platform using a “flip-chip” system; such joints provide maximum connection density.

Each core consists of a certain number of functional blocks:

• interrupt block, which is necessary for quickly switching between tasks;
• instruction generation unit responsible for receiving and sending commands for subsequent processing;
• decoding block, which is needed to process incoming commands and determine the actions required for this;
• control unit, which is responsible for transmitting processed instructions to other functional parts and coordinating the load;
• the last ones are execution and save blocks.

The processor core is the smallest board on which the working elements are located

What is a processor socket

The term socket is translated from English as “socket” or “connector”. For a personal computer, this term simultaneously refers directly to the motherboard and processor. The socket is where the CPU is mounted. They differ from each other in such characteristics as size, number and type of contacts, and cooling installation features.

The two largest processor manufacturers - Intel and AMD - are waging a long-standing marketing war, each offering their own socket, suitable only for the CPU of their production. The number in the marking of a specific socket, for example, LGA 775, indicates the number of contacts or pins. Also, in technological terms, sockets may differ from each other:

• the presence of additional controllers;
• the ability of technology to support the graphics core of the processor;
• productivity.

The socket can also affect the following computer operating parameters:

• type of supported RAM;
• FSB bus frequency;
• indirectly, on the PCI-e version and the SATA connector.

The creation of a special socket for mounting the central processor is required so that the user can upgrade the system and change the CPU in the event of its failure.

The processor socket is a socket for installing it on the motherboard

Graphics core in the processor: what is it?

One of the parts of the CPU, in addition to the main core itself, can be a graphics processor. What is it, and why is the use of such a component required? It should be noted right away that integrating a graphics core is not mandatory and is not present in every processor. This device is required to perform the basic functions of the CPU in the form of solving computing problems, as well as graphics support.

FOR YOUR INFORMATION:

Sometimes you can see the abbreviation IGP, which stands for Integrated Graphics Processor or integrated graphics processor. This means that this particular PC uses a similar solution, and a discrete video card may be absent altogether.

The reasons why manufacturers use technologies to combine two functions in one core are:

• reduced power consumption because smaller devices require less power and cooling costs;
• compactness;
• cost reduction.

The use of integrated or built-in graphics is most often observed in laptops or low-cost PCs intended for office work, where there are no excessive graphics requirements.

The graphics core is a graphics coprocessor located on the CPU.

Basic concepts of processor in computer science

What are threads in a processor

A thread of execution in a CPU is the smallest unit of processing assigned by the kernel necessary to separate the code and context of the executing process. There can be multiple processes simultaneously using CPU resources. There is an original development from Intel, which began to be used in models starting with the Intel Core i3 processor, which is called HyperThreading. This is a technology for dividing a physical core into two logical ones. Thus, the operating system creates additional computing power and increases threading. It turns out that the number of cores alone will not be decisive, since in some cases computers with 4 cores are inferior in performance to those with only 2.

The number of threads can be viewed through the task manager

What is a technical process in a processor?

In computer science, process technology refers to the size of transistors used in the computer core. The manufacturing process of the CPU occurs using the photolithography method, when transistors are etched from a crystal covered with a dielectric film under the influence of light. The optical equipment used has such an indicator as resolution. This will be the technological process. The higher it is, the more transistors can fit on one chip.

The reduction in crystal size is facilitated by:

• reduction of heat generation and energy consumption;
• performance, since while maintaining the physical size of the crystal, it is possible to place a larger number of working elements on it.

The unit of measurement for the process is nanometer (10-9). Most modern processors are manufactured using the 22 nm process technology.

FOR YOUR INFORMATION:

An example is the Intel Core i7 processor, which, with a crystal size of 160 mm, contains 1.4 billion working elements.

The technical process is an increase in the number of working elements of the processor while maintaining its size

What is CPU virtualization

The basis of the method is to divide the CPU into a guest and monitor part. If switching from the host to the guest OS is required, then the processor automatically performs this operation, keeping visible only those register values ​​that are required for stable operation. Since the guest operating system interacts directly with the processor, the virtual machine will run much faster.

You can enable virtualization in the BIOS settings. Most motherboards and processors from AMD do not support the technology of creating a virtual machine using hardware methods. Here software methods come to the aid of the user.

Virtualization is activated in BIOS

What are processor registers

A processor register is a special set of digital circuitry that refers to the ultra-fast memory required by the CPU to store the results of intermediate operations. Each processor contains a great many registers, most of which are inaccessible to the programmer and are reserved for executing basic kernel functions. There are general and special purpose registers. The first group is available for access, the second is used by the processor itself. Since the speed of interaction with CPU registers is higher than access in RAM, they are actively used by programmers to write software products.

Processor registers

Main technical characteristics of the processor

What is processor clock speed

Many users have heard the concept of clock frequency, but not everyone fully understands what it is. In simple terms, this is the number of operations that the CPU can perform in 1 second. The rule here is that the higher the clock rate, the more productive the computer.

The unit of measurement of clock frequency is Hertz, which in its physical meaning is a display of the number of oscillations over a set period of time. The formation of clock oscillations occurs due to the action of a quartz crystal, which is located in the clock resonator. After voltage is applied, electric current oscillations occur. They are transmitted to a generator, which converts them into pulses that are sent to the data buses. The processor clock speed is not the only characteristic for assessing the speed of a PC. You also need to take into account the number of cores and the amount of buffer memory.

You can view the clock frequency in the BIOS or using special software

What is processor bit size?

Every Windows OS user, when installing new programs, was faced with choosing a version for the system bit size. What is the CPU bit capacity? In simple terms, this is an indicator, otherwise called a machine word, showing how many bits of information the CPU processes in one clock cycle. In modern processors this figure can be a multiple of 32 or 64.

FOR YOUR INFORMATION:

For the average user, the bit capacity will determine the maximum amount of RAM supported by the processor. For 32 bits this is 4 GB, and for 64 bits the upper limit is already 16 TB.

Bit depth can be 32 or 64 bits

What is CPU throttling?

Throttling, or throttling, is a protective mechanism that is used to prevent the CPU from overheating or causing hardware failures during operation. The function is active by default and is triggered when the temperature rises to a critical point, which is set for each specific CPU model by the manufacturer. Protection is carried out by reducing kernel performance. When the temperature returns to normal, the function automatically turns off. It is possible to forcefully change the throttling parameters through the BIOS. It is actively used by CPU overclockers or overclockers, but for the average user such changes can break the PC.

When the permissible CPU temperature is exceeded, the protection system, or throttling, is automatically turned on

CPU and video card temperature

When the core and other elements of the CPU operate, a large amount of heat is generated, which is why modern computers use powerful cooling systems for both the central processor and the main components of the motherboard. Demanding programs that actively use the power of the CPU and video card (usually games) load the processor, which leads to a rapid increase in temperature. In this case, throttling is enabled. Many video card manufacturers claim that their products can function normally even at 100°C. In reality, the maximum temperature will be the one indicated in the technical documentation.

FOR YOUR INFORMATION:

powerful video cards and processors operate at higher clock speeds, which leads to greater heat generation. Therefore they require improved cooling.

You can independently control the temperature using special monitoring software (AIDA64, GPU Temp, Speccy). If there is slowdown when working or playing, it means that the temperature has most likely risen to a critical level, and the protection has automatically activated.

You can independently monitor the temperature of the CPU and video card using special software

What is turbo boost in a processor?

Turbo Boost is a patented technology from Intel that is used in the first three generations of Intel Core i5 and i7 processors. It is used to hardware accelerate the CPU for a certain time. Using technology, the overclocking procedure is carried out taking into account all important parameters - current, temperature, voltage, OS state, so it is completely safe for the computer. The increase in processor speed is temporary and will depend on the type of load, number of cores and platform configuration. Additionally, it should be noted that the technology is supported only by Windows 7 and 8 operating systems.

Proprietary technology from Intel allows you to temporarily improve computer performance

Types of processors

In total, it is customary to distinguish 5 main types of processors in a computer:

1. Buffer. This is a coprocessor that is required to pre-process information between the peripheral and the CPU.
2. Preprocessor. At its core, this is a processor similar to the previous one, the purpose of which is intermediate data processing.
3. CISC. A CPU manufactured by Intel, which differs from the usual one in an increased set of instructions.
4. RISC. An alternative version of CISC with a reduced number of commands. Most major processor manufacturers work on a combination of two varieties (CISC and RISC), which will increase the power and speed of the core.
5. Clones. These are processors that are produced by small manufacturers under license or completely pirated.

The most popular models and manufacturers

The microprocessor market is divided by two large manufacturers - Intel and AMD, who have been in an irreconcilable battle throughout their existence. Each company offers its own ready-made solutions. Choosing a specific model is a subjective decision for the end user, as each manufacturer offers a wide range of models, ranging from budget options to top-end gaming CPUs.

The most popular models in the line of processors from Intel are the Intel Core i3, i5 and i7. Depending on the modification, they can be used both in gaming PCs and in office machines. AMD's Ryzen series processors are considered one of the best, demonstrating good performance indicators. The Athlon series is still found, but is already considered archival. For an undemanding user, AMD A series processors are suitable.

AMD and Intel are the two largest processor companies

What is CPU scalping?

CPU scalping is the procedure of removing the cover to replace thermal paste. Carrying out this procedure is one of the components of overclocking or may be required to reduce the load on the CPU hardware.

The procedure itself consists of:

• removing the cover;
• removing old thermal paste;
• crystal cleaning;
• applying a new layer of thermal paste;
• closing the lid.

When carrying out the procedure, you should take into account the fact that one wrong movement can lead to failure of the processor. Therefore, it is better to entrust this event to professionals. If the decision to carry out scalping at home is finally made, then we can advise you to purchase a special device in the form of a clamp for the CPU, which will make it easier to remove the cover without damaging the crystal.

How to overclock a processor

Overclocking, or overclocking the central processor, may be advisable if you have outdated equipment and lack the funds to buy a new stone. Typically, the procedure allows for a productivity increase of 10 to 20%. There are two methods for overclocking - by increasing the FSB frequency or increasing the processor multiplier. Modern computers, as a general rule, come with a locked multiplier, so the most accessible way would be to change the system bus frequency.

Overclocking the processor is carried out by increasing the bus frequency or processor multiplier

Basic overclocking tips:

1. It is not recommended to touch the core power without experience.
2. The frequency increase should be carried out in stages, increasing by no more than 100 MHz at a time.
3. Monitor the temperature, since heat generation increases as the frequency increases.
4. When deciding to increase the core power supply, the step is 0.05V, while the maximum limit should not exceed 0.3V, otherwise there is a high probability of CPU failure.
5. After each increase, stability testing is required. At the first failures, overclocking must be stopped.

FOR YOUR INFORMATION:

If, when reaching the maximum frequency, stable operation is observed, but excessive heating is observed, in this case it is necessary to fully examine the operation of the PC cooling system.

The overclocking process can be simplified by using special programs that independently control the main parameters affected by overclocking.

The processor is the heart of your PC. This is where all machine processes are administered. The quality of the entire computer depends on how efficiently this unit works. This means that your confidence and peace of mind depend entirely on the choice of high-quality hardware for your computer.

If you have questions for our experts, you can leave them below.

Ministry of General and Professional Education of the Sverdlovsk Region

Vocational Pedagogical College

Department of Service Design and Information Technologies

Specialty 230103 – Automated information processing and control systems

Completed:

Student of group 211 T

I.R. Gataullin

Supervisor:

M. S. Ogorodov

Ekaterinburg 2009

Introduction

1. Von Neumann architecture

2. CPU device

3. System bus

4. CISC, RISC, MISC processors

5. Conveyors

6. Superscalar architectures

7. Cache memory

8. Processors of the AMDPhenomII family

9. Processors of the IntelCorei7 family

10. Core i7 920, Phenom II X4 920, Phenom X4 9950

Today, a world without a computer is an unthinkable phenomenon. But few people think about the structure of these “creatures”. And certainly no one knows how smart these devices have become over the past 50 years. For many people, artificial intelligence and the computer on your desk are one and the same. But as enlightened people, we know that the mind of a person, or even a dog of any, even the smartest, machine is still far away. But there is still a difference: in the brains of living beings there is parallel processing of video, sound, taste, sensations, and etc., not to mention such an elementary thing as the thought process, which accompanies many from birth to death. Today, any breakthrough in information technology is seen as something particularly outstanding. People want to create for themselves a younger brother who, if he doesn’t think yet, at least thinks faster than them. It is clear that no gigahertz can measure the uniqueness of the human brain, but no one does, and we will take a brief excursion into the recent past and, of course, into the incomprehensible present of the development of the main part of the computer, its brain, its heart - its central processor. At the moment This topic is very relevant, because... modern technologies are developing rapidly, especially processors. The purpose of my essay is to get acquainted with the design of the central processor and consider some processors.

To achieve this goal, I set myself the following tasks:

· Learn the main parts of the processor

· What are they needed for

· Get ​​acquainted with the line of Intelcorei7 and AMDPhenomII X4 processors.

· Compare some processors.

Von Neumann architecture

Most modern personal computer processors are generally based on some version of the cyclic sequential processing process invented by John von Neumann. D. von Neumann came up with a scheme for building a computer in 1946.

The most important steps in this process are outlined below. Different architectures and different teams may require additional steps. For example, arithmetic instructions may require additional memory accesses that read operands and write results. A distinctive feature of the von Neumann architecture is that instructions and data are stored in the same memory.

Execution cycle stages:

1. The processor places the number stored in the program counter register on the address bus and issues a read command to the memory;

2. The set number is an address for the memory; the memory, having received the address and the read command, places the contents stored at this address on the data bus and reports readiness;

3. The processor receives a number from the data bus, interprets it as a command (machine instruction) from its instruction system and executes it;

4. If the last instruction is not a branch instruction, the processor increments by one (assuming the length of each instruction is one) the number stored in the program counter; as a result, the address of the next command is formed there;

5. Step 1 is performed again.

This cycle is executed invariably, and it is this cycle that is called a process (hence the name of the device).

During the process, the processor reads a sequence of instructions contained in memory and executes them. This sequence of commands is called a program and represents the algorithm for the useful operation of the processor. The order of reading commands changes if the processor reads a jump command - then the address of the next command may be different. Another example of a process change would be when a stop command is received or when it switches to hardware interrupt mode.

CPU commands are the lowest level of computer control, so the execution of each command is inevitable and unconditional. No check is made to ensure that the actions performed are acceptable; in particular, the possible loss of valuable data is not checked. In order for the computer to perform only valid actions, the commands must be properly organized into the required program.

The speed of transition from one stage of the cycle to another is determined by the clock generator. Clock pulse generator - generates a sequence of electrical pulses, the frequency of which determines the clock frequency of the processor, the time interval between adjacent pulses, determines the time of one clock cycle or simply the clock cycle of the machine. The frequency of the clock generator is one of the main characteristics of a computer and largely determines the speed of its operation, since each operation is performed in a certain number of clock cycles.

CPU device

Central processing unit (CPU; CPU - English céntralprócessing únit, literally - central computing device) is the executor of machine instructions, part of the computer hardware or programmable logic controller, responsible for performing arithmetic operations specified by operating system programs, and coordinating the operation of all computer devices.

Figure 1 shows the structure of a regular computer. The central processing unit is the brain of the computer. Its job is to execute programs located in main memory. It recalls commands from memory, determines their type, and then executes them one by one. The components are connected by a bus, which is a set of wires connected in parallel, through which addresses, data and control signals are transmitted. Buses can be external (connecting the processor with memory and I/O devices) and internal.

The processor consists of several parts. The control unit is responsible for recalling commands from memory and determining their type. An arithmetic logic unit performs arithmetic operations (such as addition) and logical operations (such as logical AND).

Inside the central processor there is memory for storing intermediate results and some control commands. This memory consists of several registers, each of which performs a specific function. Typically all registers are the same size. Each register contains one number, which is limited by the size of the register. Registers are read and written very quickly because they are located inside the CPU.

The most important register is the program counter, which indicates which command to execute next. The name "program counter" is misleading because it doesn't count anything, but the term is used everywhere. There is also a command register, which contains the command currently being executed. Most computers have other registers, some of which are multi-functional, while others perform only specific functions.

Fig. 1 Diagram of a computer with one central processor and two input/output devices

System bus

The main interface system of a computer, providing pairing and communication of all devices with each other, including itself:

1. Code data bus (CDB) - contains wires and interface circuits for parallel transmission of all bits of the machine code of the operand.

2. Address code bus (ACBA) – contains wires and interfacing circuits for parallel transmission of all bits of the address code of a main memory cell or an input/output port of an external device.

3. Coded instruction bus (IBC) - contains wires and interface circuits for transmitting instructions to all blocks of the machine.

System bus – provides three directions of information transfer:

1. Between the processor and main memory.

2. Between the processor and the input/output ports of external devices in direct memory access mode.

3. Between the main memory and the input/output ports of external devices.

4. CISC, RISC, MISC processors

CISC processors

Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC) - calculations with a complex set of instructions. Processor architecture based on a complex instruction set. Typical representatives of CISC are the Intel x86 microprocessor family (although for many years these processors have been CISC only in terms of the external instruction system).

RISC processors

Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) - calculations with a reduced set of instructions. A processor architecture based on a reduced instruction set. It is characterized by the presence of fixed-length instructions, a large number of registers, register-to-register operations, and the absence of indirect addressing. The RISC concept was developed by John Cock of IBM and the name was coined by David Patterson.

The computer processor is the main component of the computer, its “brain”, so to speak. It performs all logical and arithmetic operations specified by the program. In addition, it controls all computer devices.

What is a modern processor?

Today, processors are manufactured as microprocessors. Visually, a microprocessor is a thin plate of crystalline silicon in the shape of a rectangle. The area of ​​the plate is several square millimeters, and it contains circuits that provide the functionality of the PC processor. As a rule, the record is protected by a ceramic or plastic flat case, to which it is connected via gold wires with metal tips. This design allows you to connect the processor to the computer motherboard.

• address buses and data buses;
• arithmetic-logical unit;
• registers;
• cache (fast small memory 8-512 KB);
• program counters;
• mathematical coprocessor.

What is processor architecture?

Processor architecture is the ability of a processor to execute a set of machine codes. This is from a programmers point of view. But developers of computer components adhere to a different interpretation of the concept of “processor architecture.” In their opinion, processor architecture is a reflection of the basic principles of the internal organization of certain types of processors. Let's say the Intel Pentium architecture is designated P5, Pentium II and Pentium III are P6, and the recently popular Pentium 4 is NetBurst. When Intel closed the P5 to competing manufacturers, AMD developed its K7 architecture for the Athlon and Athlon XP, and the K8 for the Athlon 64.

Even processors with the same architecture can differ significantly from each other. These differences are due to the variety of processor cores, which have a certain set of characteristics. The most common differences are different system bus frequencies, as well as the size of the second level cache and the technological characteristics by which the processors are manufactured. Very often, changing the core in processors from the same family also requires replacing the processor socket. And this entails problems with motherboard compatibility. But manufacturers are constantly improving kernels and making constant, but not significant changes to the kernel. Such innovations are called kernel revisions and, as a rule, are indicated by alphanumeric combinations.

The system bus or processor bus (FSB - Front Side Bus) is a set of signal lines that are combined by purpose (addresses, data, etc.). Each line has a specific information transfer protocol and electrical characteristics. That is, the system bus is the connecting link that connects the processor itself and all other PC devices (hard drive, video card, memory and much more). Only the CPU is connected to the system bus itself; all other devices are connected through controllers located in the north bridge of the system logic set (chipset) of the motherboard. Although in some processors the memory controller is connected directly to the processor, which provides a more efficient memory interface to the CPU.

Cache or fast memory is a mandatory component of all modern processors. The cache is a buffer between the processor and the rather slow system memory controller. The buffer stores blocks of data currently being processed, and the processor does not need to constantly access slow system memory. Naturally, this significantly increases the overall performance of the processor itself.

In processors used today, the cache is divided into several levels. The fastest is the first level L1, which works with the processor core. It is usually divided into two parts - the data cache and the instruction cache. L2, the second level cache, interacts with L1. It is much larger in size and is not divided into an instruction cache and a data cache. Some processors have L3 - the third level, it is even larger than the second level, but an order of magnitude slower, since the bus between the second and third levels is narrower than between the first and second. However, the speed of the third level is still much higher than the speed of system memory.

There are two types of cache: exclusive and non-exclusive.

An exclusive type of cache is one in which information at all levels is strictly separated from the original.

A non-exclusive cache is a cache in which information is repeated at all cache levels. It is difficult to say which type of cache is better, both the first and the second have their own advantages and disadvantages. An exclusive type of cache is used in AMD processors, rather than an exclusive type used by Intel.

The processor connector can be slotted or female. In any case, its purpose is to install a central processor. The use of the connector makes it easier to replace the processor during upgrades and remove it during PC repairs. The connectors can be intended for installing a CPU card and the processor itself. Connectors are distinguished by their purpose for certain types of processors or CPU cards.

The first place is occupied by the Intel Core i5 processor. An excellent option for a powerful gaming machine.

Second place goes to the Intel Celeron E3200, despite its fairly decent price. The best option for an office machine.

Third place is again taken by Intel - this time a 4-core Core 2 Quad.

Fourth place - AMD Athlon II X2 215 2.7 GHz 1Mb Socket-AM3 OEM processor. A good choice for home and office, for those who want to save money and do not need a super powerful machine. In addition, this processor model has a lot of room for overclocking.

Fifth place - AMD Phenom II X4 945. Good price, excellent performance, large cache and 4 cores on board.

If you are willing to pay about $1000 for a processor, you can purchase an Intel Core 2 Extreme. But such a processor is unlikely to be suitable for the masses of consumers. Therefore, let's look at more affordable options.

If you are a simple PC user who works with texts, watches movies, listens to music and surfs the Internet, either the Celeron E1200 or the younger Athlon 64 X2 is quite suitable for you. The latter has certain advantages over the former and will last you for many years.

If you use your computer for entertainment and occasionally play games, then you need to look at Core 2 Duo processors. This is the most optimal processor option for your needs.

If you are the type of user who uses all the computer's capabilities, working with audio, Internet, video, large programs and heavy games, the Core 2 Duo E8200 is best for you. This processor has high performance, low heat dissipation, sufficient overclocking capabilities, and is affordable.

And finally, are you a hardcore gamer and need your PC to be a gaming powerhouse? You just need either a dual-core or quad-core processor, no less.

The processor is, without a doubt, the main component of any computer. It is this small piece of silicon, several tens of millimeters in size, that performs all the complex tasks that you set for your computer. This is where the operating system runs, as well as all programs. But how does it all work? We will try to examine this question in our article today.

The processor manages the data on your computer and executes millions of instructions per second. And by the word processor, I mean exactly what it really means - a small chip made of silicon that actually performs all the operations on the computer. Before we move on to how a processor works, we must first consider in detail what it is and what it consists of.

First let's look at what a processor is. CPU or central processing unit (central processing unit) - which is a microcircuit with a huge number of transistors, made on a silicon crystal. The world's first processor was developed by Intel in 1971. It all started with the Intel 4004. It could only perform computational operations and could only process 4 bytes of data. The next model came out in 1974 - Intel 8080 and could already process 8 bits of information. Next were 80286, 80386, 80486. It was from these processors that the name of the architecture came.

The clock speed of the 8088 processor was 5 MHz, and the number of operations per second was only 330,000, which is much less than in modern processors. Modern devices have frequencies up to 10 GHz and several million operations per second.

We will not consider transistors; we will move to a higher level. Each processor consists of the following components:

• Core- all information processing and mathematical operations are performed here; there can be several cores;
• Command decoder- this component belongs to the core, it converts software commands into a set of signals that will be executed by the core transistors;
• Cache- an area of ​​ultra-fast memory, a small volume, in which data read from RAM is stored;
• Registers- these are very fast memory cells in which the currently processed data is stored. There are only a few of them and they have a limited size - 8, 16 or 32 bits; the processor bit capacity depends on this;
• Coprocessor- a separate core that is optimized only for performing certain operations, for example, video processing or data encryption;
• Address bus- for communication with all devices connected to the motherboard, can have a width of 8, 16 or 32 bits;
• Data bus- for communication with RAM. Using it, the processor can write data to memory or read it from there. The memory bus can be 8, 16 or 32 bits, this is the amount of data that can be transferred at one time;
• Synchronization bus- allows you to control the processor frequency and operating cycles;
• Restart bus- to reset the processor state;

The main component can be considered the core or arithmetic computing device, as well as processor registers. Everything else helps these two components work. Let's look at what registers are and what their purpose is.

• Registers A, B, C- designed to store data during processing, yes, there are only three of them, but this is quite enough;
• EIP- contains the address of the next program instruction in RAM;
• ESP- address of data in RAM;
• Z- contains the result of the last comparison operation;

Of course, these are not all memory registers, but these are the most important ones and are used most by the processor during program execution. Well, now that you know what the processor consists of, you can look at how it works.

How does a computer processor work?

The CPU's compute core can only perform math, comparisons, and moving data between cells and RAM, but it's enough to let you play games, watch movies, browse the web, and more.

In fact, any program consists of the following instructions: move, add, multiply, divide, difference and go to the instruction if the comparison condition is met. Of course, these are not all commands; there are others that combine those already listed or simplify their use.

All data movements are performed using the move instruction (mov), this instruction moves data between register cells, between registers and RAM, between memory and the hard disk. There are special instructions for arithmetic operations. And jump instructions are needed to fulfill conditions, for example, check the value of register A and if it is not zero, then go to the instruction at the desired address. You can also create loops using jump instructions.

This is all very well, but how do all these components interact with each other? And how do transistors understand instructions? The operation of the entire processor is controlled by an instruction decoder. It makes each component do what it's supposed to do. Let's look at what happens when we need to execute a program.

At the first stage, the decoder loads the address of the first instruction of the program in memory into the register of the next instruction EIP, for this it activates the read channel and opens the latch transistor to put data into the EIP register.

In the second clock cycle, the instruction decoder converts the command into a set of signals for the transistors of the computing core, which execute it and write the result to one of the registers, for example, C.

On the third cycle, the decoder increments the address of the next instruction by one so that it points to the next instruction in memory. Next, the decoder proceeds to loading the next command and so on until the end of the program.

Each instruction is already encoded by a sequence of transistors, and converted into signals, it causes physical changes in the processor, for example, changing the position of a latch that allows data to be written to a memory cell, and so on. Different commands require different numbers of clock cycles to execute; for example, one command may require 5 clock cycles, while another, more complex one may require up to 20. But all this still depends on the number of transistors in the processor itself.

Well, this is all clear, but all this will only work if one program is running, and if there are several of them and all at the same time. We can assume that the processor has several cores, and then each core runs a separate program. But no, in fact there are no such restrictions.

Only one program can be executed at one time. All processor time is divided among all running programs, each program executes for a few clock cycles, then the processor is transferred to another program, and all the contents of the registers are stored in RAM. When control returns to this program, the previously saved values ​​are loaded into the registers.

conclusions

That's all, in this article we looked at how a computer processor works, what a processor is and what it consists of. It might be a little complicated, but we've kept it simple. I hope you now have a better understanding of how this very complex device works.

To conclude the video about the history of processors: